Cattail - Typha latifolia

Pollution, Plant, Weaving, Remediation, Dermatological Uses

• Other Names: Reedmace, Broadleaf cattail, Bullrush, Nailrod.^[PFAF]
• Family: Typhaceae (Cat-tail family) ^[E-flora]

Description
"Typha latifolia is a PERENNIAL growing to 2.5 m (8ft) by 3 m (9ft) at a fast rate."
"It is hardy to zone (UK) 3. It is in flower from Jun to August. The flowers are monoecious (individual flowers are either male or female, but both sexes can be found on the same plant) and are pollinated by Wind.It is noted for attracting wildlife." ^[PFAF]
"Suitable for: light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils. Suitable pH: acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils. It cannot grow in the shade. It prefers wet soil and can grow in water." ^[PFAF]

Origin Status: Native ^[E-flora]

General: Perennial herb from tough, extensive rhizomes; stems erect, simple, hard, pithy, 100-300 cm tall. ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
Leaves: Sheaths tapered to blades, sometimes veined; blades flat, 8-20 mm wide. ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
Flowers: Inflorescence a densely crowded, terminal, cylindrical spike; female and male portions of the spikes usually contiguous; the female portion below, brown, 12-30 mm wide, the male portion above, slightly wider than the female; female flowers not subtended by a bract; stigmas lanceolate to egg-shaped; pollen grains in groups of four. ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
Fruits: Follicles, dry, dehiscent, ellipsoid, long-hairy, about 1 mm long. ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
USDA Flower Colour: Brown
USDA Blooming Period: Late spring
USDA Fruit/Seed characteristics:

• Colour: Brown
• Present from Summer to Fall ^{[USDA-E-flora]}

Habitat: Wet ditches, ponds, lakeshores and marshes in the lowland, steppe and montane zones.^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
Shallow water up to 15cm deep in ponds, lakes, ditches, slow-flowing streams etc, succeeding in acid or alkaline conditions[9, 17]. ^[PFAF]
Range: common in S BC, less frequent in NE BC; circumpolar, N to AK, YT an NT, E to NF and S to ME, MA, PA, NC, FL, MS, LA, TX, NM, AZ, MX and CA; Eurasia, N Africa. ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
Throughout the world from the Arctic to latitude 30° S, incl Britain but absent from Africa, S. Asia. ^[PFAF]

Quick Notes

• Propagated usually by division, sometimes by seeds planted in pots of water.^[Schofield]
• One acre of cattails yields over three tons of nutritious flour.^[Schofield]
• The plant grows so prolifically that it often chokes itself to death.^[Schofield]
• Cattail flour is a potential source of food for the population since this plant covers many thousand acres in the United States. Classen (54) figured that one acre of cattails would yield about 6,475 pounds of flour. This flour would probably contain about 80% carbohydrates and around 6% to 8% protein. ^[Harrington]

Hazards

Though cattail is considered safe, foragers should be aware that wild iris (iris setosa) frequently inhabits the same vicinity. It's long linear leaves are reminiscent of cattail. Mistaken identity is virtually impossible in summer; confusion (and possible poisoning) could result if harvesting just the rhizome in fall or winter.^[Schofield]
Some people notice a slightly unpleasant tingling sensation in the throat a few minutes after eating raw white cattail shoots. Do not eat raw cattails found growing in water whose purity is questionable. ^[Nyerges]

Food Use

• Rootstalks:
  • Harvesting: Autumn or Winter.^[Schofield] Early spring. ^{[Turner, Kuhnlein]} "The plant is best harvested from late autumn to early spring since it is richest in starch at this time[9]." ^[PFAF] ...they are available at any time, but seem to us to be richer in starch at the end of the growing season. They are usually found about 3-4 inches below the soil surface. We like the young rootstocks best; these are the ones that have a bud at the end ready to form the new growth in the spring.^[Harrington]
  • Flour: To obtain white flour from the rhizomes, scrub them well and peel away the tough outer rind while still wet. Then pound with a mallet. Place the macerated roots talk in a jar and cover with water. The flour (30 - 46 % starch and the same protein content as rice) will settle to the bottom. Carefully pour off the water and discard any stringy fibers. Use the wet, white flour immediately in baking, or dry well and store.^[Schofield] The rhizomes can also be processed by a method suggested by Euell Gibbons. Fill a large container with cold water and then crush the cores by hand in the water until the fiber is separated. The flour is allowed to settle to the bottom and then the fiber can be poured out. Repeat this two to three times until the flour is free of fiber. This flour can then be used wet or dried for later use. ^[Nyerges] The rhizome was sometimes dried over a fire and ground for a porridge meal to be used in winter. ^{[Turner, Kuhnlein]} "The roots can also be dried and ground into a powder, this powder is rich in protein and can be mixed with wheat flour and then used for making bread, biscuits, muffins etc[55, 62, 95, 183]. One hectare of this plant can produce 8 tonnes of flour from the rootstock[85]. The root contains about 80% carbohydrate (30 - 46% starch) and 6 - 8% protein[85]." ^[PFAF]
  • Hornlike growths on these underground stems are a vegetable. The sprouts on the rhizome are added to salads as well as Chinese stir-fries. The choice starch ball at the base of the stem also adds texture and flavor to dishes. ^[Schofield] The buds at the end of the young rootstocks have a lump of starchy material in their centers where they join the main rootstock; this starchy mass is also present after the buds develop into young shoots; it is greatly fancied by many people. ^[Harrington]
  • Slave of the Northwest Territories ate the rhizomes in the fall, raw or fried in animal or fish grease.^{[Turner, Kuhnlein]}
  • Pit-cooked or roasted. ^[Schofield] "Roots - raw or cooked[2, 12]. They can be boiled and eaten like potatoes or macerated and then boiled to yield a sweet syrup." ^[PFAF] Some dug the rhizome in spring when it is "just like fat inside" and ate it raw or roasted in the embers. ^{[Turner, Kuhnlein]}
• Misc Parts
  • Rootstalk sprouts & white core of young stalks - Harvested in spring.^[Schofield]
  • Young Shoots - "In spring - raw or cooked[12, 55, 62, 94, 102, 183]. An asparagus substitute. They taste like cucumber[212]. The shoots can still be used when they are up to 50cm long[85]" ^[PFAF]
  • Sometimes they peeled and ate the white lower stem and leaf bases. ^{[Turner, Kuhnlein]}
• Green Female Flowers - Late spring to early summer.^[Schofield] Immature flowering spike - raw, cooked or made into a soup[62, 85, 94]. It tastes like sweet corn[183].^[PFAF]
  
  • Harvesting:In the early summer, the new flowers appear as green bloom spikes (soon to be the decorative brown cattail stalk). ^[Nyerges]
  • Preparation:These tender spikes make an excellent vegetable when still young and green, requiring only 10 to 20 minutes of cooking. They can also be roasted, buttered, and eaten like com-on-the-cob. ^[Nyerges] As the season progresses the young flower stalks begin to appear. These spikes can be taken out of their sheaths and cooked in various ways. When boiled for 20 minutes you can eat them like roasting ears, nibbling the flowers off the tough inner stalk. The flowers, especially the pollen-producing ones on the upper part, can be scraped off and used alone, or as flavoring or thickening for other foods. When the plants have further ripened, but the pollen has not been shed, we have sometimes stripped off these pollen-producing flowers by hand, often gathering several pounds in an hour or two. These young flowers can be used to make muffins, cookies, biscuits or pancakes, when mixed with wheat flour in equal proportions. They can be preserved for future use by spreading them out on a flat pan. Put this in a preheated oven set at about 350 degrees F. and roast the flowers until they are perfectly dry, stirring them frequently to avoid burning. They can then be stored for long periods in a dry, closed container, and can eventually be used in the same way as the fresh ones. ^[Harrington]
• Pollen
  • Harvesting:Late spring to early summer.^[Schofield] The male flowers produce abundant yellow pollen. Collect by placing a paper bag over the flower head and shaking enthusiastically. ^[Schofield] "It can also be eaten with the young flowers[85], which makes it considerably easier to utilize. The pollen can be harvested by placing the flowering stem over a wide but shallow container and then gently tapping the stem and brushing the pollen off with a fine brush[9]. This will help to pollinate the plant and thereby ensure that both pollen and seeds can be harvested[K]." ^[PFAF]
  • Preparation:Sift the pollen and add to pancakes, muffins, and biscuits (in place of up to half the flour) for a golden color and special flavor. The pollen may be used immediately or dried. ^[Schofield] "Pollen - raw or cooked. The pollen can be used as a protein rich additive to flour when making bread, porridge etc[12, 55, 62, 94, 102]." ^[PFAF]
  • Storage: It has a storage life of about one year. ^[Schofield]
• Heart
  • (starchy ball formed at junction of green stem and white rootstalk): Late spring to early summer. ^[Schofield]
  • "Base of Mature Stem: Raw or cooked[2, 9, 55]. It is best to remove the outer part of the stem[62, 183]. It is called 'Cossack asparagus'[183]." ^[PFAF]
  • Inner Core: The tender inner core of the spring stems is eaten raw or cooked. Slice the peeled white core and add to green salads and potato salads. Try it pickled, steamed, or stir-fried.^[Schofield] Just above the rhizome where the base of a shoot connects, there is found a sizable lump of nutritious carbohydrate material called the heart or the root (not a root, botanically). Though they can be eaten raw, the hearts are generally peeled, then cooked (or baked) and seasoned as you' d prepare Jerusalem artichokes, turnips, or potatoes. As the plant sends up its flower stalk, this starchy core becomes tougher and less palatable. ^[Nyerges]
• Seed: "Seed - raw or cooked[2, 257]. The seed is rather small and fiddly to utilize, but has a pleasant nutty taste when roasted[12]. The seed can be ground into a flour and used in making cakes etc[257]. An edible oil is obtained from the seed[55, 85]. Due to the small size of the seed this is probably not a very worthwhile crop[K].^{" [PFAF]} The Indians would sometimes eat the tiny seedlike fruits, by burning off the bristles. This process would roast or parch the "seeds," which could then be rubbed off the spike. Sometimes the down was pulled off the spikes and spread on a flat rock. This was burned and the minute "seeds" swept up to be used as food.^[Harrington]
• Young Shoots: These shoots are commonly referred to as Cossack asparagus, due to the Cossacks' fondness for this food.[Nyereges] The very young, round and pointed, still-white underground shoots (soon to develop into the long erect leaves of the young plant), which arise about an inch or two from the starchy core, can also be eaten either raw or cooked. ^[Nyerges]
  • Harvesting: In the winter and spring, the young cattail shoots can be eaten. ^[Nyerges] The young shoots were pulled or cut from the rootstocks in the spring when they were about 4 to 16 inches long. ^[Harrington]
  • Preparation: Pulling back the outer green leaves, grasp the white inner leaves of the young shoot and briskly pull it up. Approximately the bottom 12" of the shoots are eaten, since this is the most tender and palatable. The outer fibrous layers should be peeled back to get to the tender insides. ^[Nyerges] The outer leaves were peeled away, leaving the tender gulden-yellow inner ponion; these were eaten raw or in salads. ^[Harrington] These peeled shoots can be added raw to salads or eaten as is, or can be boiled, baked, and added to stews as a wild vegetable. ^[Nyerges]
  • Nutrition: One hundred grams, or 1/2 cup, of this shoot contains 58 mg of calcium, 109 mg of phosphorus, 639 mg of potassium, and 76mg of vitamin C. ^[Nyerges]
    

Other Uses

• Leaves: Supplied materials for baskets, summer houses, and bedding.^[Schofield]
  • Weaving Material:Used as a mat-making material.^{[Turner, Kuhnlein]} The long, erect leaves are used in making rush chairs, sandals, mats, and other items that your survival may someday depend on. To use, first dry the long cattail leaves to prevent later shrinkage. Then moisten the leaves before weaving to make them pliable. An excellent book that provides detailed instructions on this method of weaving is Outdoor Survival Skills by Larry Dean Olsen. ^[Nyerges] Cattail leaf mats were important in food preparation in many areas. They were used as a surface on which to dry berries and "root" foods, and were also used as "plates" for serving food.^{[Turner, Kuhnlein]} Cattail-caned chairs have been known to live a century of use. Collect the mature leaves and hang in bundles in a warm, airy place until dry. To use, soak in water until soft and pliable.^[Schofield] Used as a caulking material in pioneer cabins.^[Schofield]
  • Basketry: For basket-weaving, the leaves were split and spun on the bare thigh. Camas bulbs and crabapples were commonly stored in bags made of cattail (Suttles, 1951). ^{[Turner&Bell]}
  • Mats: In recent times, cattail leaves and finished mats were traded to the Nootka and Kwakiutl (Drucker, 1951). This was probably the most important basket and mat weaving material of the Island Salish.^{[Turner&Bell]}
    • Preparation: "The flat leaves, often six feet or more in height, were gathered in the late summer and laid to dry in the sun for several days (Paul, 1968). To make mats, they were laid side by side, alternating the butt and tip ends so that the mat would be even, and threaded together at four-inch intervals with the plant's own fiber or with nettle twine, using a thin 2 to 4 foot needle of Holodiscus or some other hardwood. The needle was poked through the entire row of leaves, and while there, the leaves were firmly pressed around it with a maplewood creaser (Davis, 1949) in order to make the opening for the thread. Selvage pieces of braided cattail leaves were placed at the edges, and the ends were folded over and bound (Paul, 1968; Drucker, 1955). Dried cattail leaves are naturally spongy, a characteristic which made the mats extremely useful for insulating the walls of winter houses, for covering temporary summer houses, and for kneeling on in canoes. Paul (1968) recalled that the walls of the lodge he used to live in were completely lined with these mats. Cattail mats were also used as an underlay for feather mattresses (op. cit.).^{[Turner&Bell]}
  • Baby Cradle: Generally, a Salish baby's first cradle was made from bundles of cattail leaves (Boas, 1890). ^{[Turner&Bell]}
  • Papermaking Fibre: "A fibre obtained from the leaves can be used for making paper[189] The leaves are harvested in summer, autumn or winter and are soaked in water for 24 hours prior to cooking. The fibres are cooked for 2 hours with soda ash and then beaten in a ball mill for 1½ hours. They make a green or brown paper[189]^{" [PFAF]}
    
• Spikes:
  • Torch: Soaked in oil and used as torches.^[Schofield] The mature flower spike was dipped in wax or tallow. ^[Nyerges]
  • Insulation: "The flowering stems can be dried and used for insulation, they also have good buoyancy properties[55, 171].^{" [PFAF]}
• The stalks have been used to make arrows and hand-drills.^[Schofield]
• "The stems can be used to make rush lights. The outer stem is removed except for a small strip about 10mm wide which acts as a spine to keep the stem erect. The stem is then soaked in oil and can be lit and used like a candle[55]." ^[PFAF]
  
• Down from mature female flowerheads: Used as insulation, dressings for wounds and diaper material.^[Schofield] Once used as filling in life preservers and as insulation for quilts, toys and pillows. ^[Schofield] Tinder.^[Schofield] "A fibre is obtained from the blossom stem and flowers[55, 57, 99]." "They have good insulating and buoyancy properties and have also been used as a wound dressing and a lining for babies nappies[99].^{" [PFAF]} The down from the mature brown spikes can be used to stuff pillows or blankets and also makes excellent fire tinder. During World War II, schoolchildren in the United States collected mature cattail spikes as well as mature milkweed pods. The down from the cattail spikes and the milkweed pods was used as a substitute for kapok, which was used in items such as life preservers and sleeping bags. During the war, the primary source of kapok stuffing (a tree by the same name) was under Japanese control. Thus, alternatives to kapok were found with cattail and milkweed down, with traits only slightly inferior to goose down. The stalks can be cut and used as chopsticks. ^[Nyerges]
  • Blankets: The Saanich spun the wooly pappus of the fruit with dog wool to make blankets (Barnett, 1955). ^{[Turner&Bell]}
• Pollen: The pollen is highly inflammable, it is used in making fireworks etc[115].^[PFAF] "The stems and leaves have many uses. Gathered in the autumn they make a good thatch, can be used in making paper, can be woven into mats, chairs, hats etc[94, 99, 257]. They are a good source of biomass, making an excellent addition to the compost heap or used as a source of fuel etc. The pulp of the plant can be converted into rayon.[222]^{" [PFAF]}
• Charcoal:
  • Tattooing: "...charcoal from this plant was used by the Saanich for tattooing."^{[Turner&Bell]}
  • Wood Preservative: When cattail mats got old, they were burned, and the charcoal was mixed with dried herring spawn and water and used to paint the insides of canoes to protect them from weathering (op. cit. ).^{[Turner&Bell2]}

Medicinal Uses

In Tom Brown's Field Guide to Wilderness Survival, Brown reports nlbbing the sticky juice found between cattail leaves on his gums at the dentist's as a novocaine substitute. He also recommends the practice for pain relief from toothache.^[Schofield]
"The leaves are diuretic[218]. The leaves have been mixed with oil and used as a poultice on sores[257]. A decoction of the stems has been used in the treatment of whooping cough[257]." ^[PFAF]

• Seed: "The seed down has been used as a dressing on burns and scalds[257]." ^[PFAF]
• Flowers: Mature female cattail flowers are traditionally mashed and formulated into a salve for cuts and burns. ^[Schofield] "The flowers are used in the treatment of a wide range of ailments including abdominal pain, amenorrhoea, cystitis, dysuria, metrorrhagia and vaginitis[218]. The young flower heads are eaten as a treatment for diarrhoea[222].^{" [PFAF]}
  • Poultice:When the fully mature brown flower spikes are broken open, all the fluffy hairs and small seeds attached to them are released, enabling the seeds to float in the wind long distances and reproduce elsewhere. This down can be pressed into wounds to stop bleeding. ^[Nyerges] Ashes from burned spikes were sprinkled on infants' navels to stop bleeding.^[Schofield]
• Pollen: The Chinese value cattail pollen for its astringent and styptic properties; they use it in the treatment of dysentery.^[Schofield] "The dried pollen is said to be anticoagulant, but when roasted with charcoal it becomes haemostatic[238]. It is used internally in the treatment of kidney stones, haemorrhage, painful menstruation, abnormal uterine bleeding, post-partum pains, abscesses and cancer of the lymphatic system[222, 238]. It should not be prescribed for pregnant women[238]. Externally, it is used in the treatment of tapeworms, diarrhoea and injuries[238]." ^[PFAF]
• Roots: "The roots are pounded into a jelly-like consistency and applied as a poultice to wounds, cuts, boils, sores, carbuncles, inflammations, burns and scalds[222, 257]." ^[PFAF]
  
  • Rattlesnake Bites: According to Mario Blackwolf, Gabrielino Native Americans in the old days would chew the starchy hearts of the cattail if they were bitten by a rattlesnake. Since this lower section of the cattail shoot is rich in sugar, it would help the rattlesnake victim deal with stress and shock. ^[Nyerges]

Other Ethnobotanical Uses

"Supplying a toothache remedy in an unidentified part of Ireland,47 Typha latifolia was once also in high repute as a cure for epilepsy in the south-western Highlands, under a Gaelic name translating as ‘fairy wives’ spindle’. Evidently more of a charm, though, than a medicine, it was held to be most potent if gathered at Midsummer midnight (with a prescribed ritual) before being wrapped in a shroud—for keeping a dead stem and root of the plant in ‘dead-clothes’ ensured freedom from every ailment for the rest of one’s life.48" ^[MPFT]

• Aquatic plants such as Typha latifolia established in wetlands can also be used for paper pulp. ^{[Dagar AMW]}

Pharmacology

• The pollen is astringent, diuretic, emmenagogue, haemostatic, refrigerant, sedative, suppurative and vulnerary[218].^[PFAF]
• "The roots are diuretic, galactogogue, refrigerant and tonic[218]."
• Anodyne (Nas); Anticoagulant (Nas); Coagulant (Nas); Diuretic (Hunan, Keys); Hemostat (Hunan, Keys); Hemostatic (Takeda); Poison (Lewis); Refrigerant (Hunan); Sterilizant (Eb31: 305; Styptic Duke,1972); Suppurative (Hunan); Tumor (Hartwell); Vermifuge (Krochmal); Vulnerary (Keys). ^[DukePhyto]

Nutritional Information

Cultivation

"A very easily grown plant, succeeding in the boggy margins of ponds or in shallow water up to 15cm deep[17]. It succeeds in acid and calcareous soils and requires a less organic-rich soil than T. angustifolia in order to do well[17]. It succeeds in sun or part shade[200]. A very invasive plant spreading freely at the roots when in a suitable site, it is not suitable for growing in small areas[24]. Unless restrained by some means, such as a large bottomless container, the plant will soon completely take over a site and will grow into the pond, gradually filling it in. This species will often form an almost complete monoculture in boggy soil. Provides excellent cover for wild fowl[1]." ^[PFAF]

• Nitrogen Accumulator ^{[Dynamic Accumulator]}

Propagation:

"Seed - surface sow in a pot and stand it in 3cm of water. Pot up the young seedlings as soon as possible and, as the plants develop, increase the depth of water. Plant out in summer. Division in spring. Very easy, harvest the young shoots when they are about 10 - 30cm tall, making sure there is at least some root attached, and plant them out into their permanent positions." ^[PFAF]

Remediation

Cattails have also been planted in areas in order to purify the water. For example, in the Florida Everglades where phosphorous-rich fertilizers in the water from farms flow into the Everglades, cattails have been planted in the path of the runoff. The cattails have exceeded all expectations in sucking the phosphorous out of the farm runoff water, so cleaner water can be discharged into the Everglades. ^[Nyerges]

• "Much study has been devoted to the translocation of pesticides in crop plants, which are being considered for use in phytoremediation because of their generally high growth rates (Vila et al. 2007). This remediation technique is often used with aquatic plants for the decontamination of water. For example, Typha latifolia is effective in reducing methyl parathion contamination of water and also of sediment (Amaya-Chavez et al. 2006)." ^{[Lichtfouse AFS]}
• Time needed for the disappearance of atrazine 1 year after plantation was 52 days with Typha latifolia ^{[Lichtfouse CCI]}
• Used to remediate the following heavy metals; Ni, Cr, Co, Zn, Mn, Pb, Cd, Cu, Hg, Fe. ^[SoilBio-35]
• Used for degradation of pollutants in wet environments. ^[Phytorem1]
• "Typha latifolia was assessed for phytoremediation of heavy metals in the sediments of industrial discharge pits (Varun et al. 2011b). The plant partitioned a major part of metals in the root itself. Along with the especially low TF values, it was found suitable as a phytostabilizer for Zn, Mn, Cr, and As with some potential for Co, Cd, and Ni also." ^[Phytorem1]
• "The macrophyte Typha latifolia planted in constructed wetlands has high potential for phytoremediation of high organic matter and ammonia-N content present in wastewater (Ciria et al. 2005)." ^[Phytorem2]
• "Trichloroethylene (TCE) has been remediated effectively by phytoremediation of wetland species including cattails (Typha latifolia)...^{" [Phytorem2]}
• "Typha latifolia and some members of the Brassicaceae are capable of metabolizing various inorganic or organic species of Se (e.g., selenate, selenite, and Se-methionine [Met]) into gaseous Se forms (e.g., dimethylselenide), which can be volatilized and released into the atmosphere (Pilon-Smits et al. 1999; Terry et al. 1999; Bañuelos 2000)." ^[Phytorem2]
• "Working on degradation of TNT through plants, such as, Phragmites australis, Juncus glaucus, Carex gracillis and Typha latifolia, Vanek et al. (2006) observed a maximum of 90 % of TNT transformation within 10 days of cultivation." ^{[Singh BRER]}

Alleleopathy

• Typha latifolia produces antialgal secondary metabolites (Aliotta et al. 1990). ^{[Cheema Alleleopathy]}
• "Typha latifolia contains three steroids and three fatty acids, among them linoleic and α-linolenic acid, inhibiting the growth of some microalgae (Aliotta et al. 1990). Most organisms were affected by α-linolenic acid and the most sensitive organisms were the cyanobacteria Synechococcus leopoliensis and Anabaena flos-aquae, that were susceptible to all compounds except one steroid (β-sitosterol)." ^{[Reigosa Alleleopathy]}

References

• DukePhyto - Typha latfolia, http://www.ars-grin.gov/duke/ Accessed Feb 10, 2015
  
• E-flora - Typha latfolia, http://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Typha%20latifolia&redblue=Both&lifeform=7, [Accessed: 11/12/2014]
  
• PFAF - Typha latfolia, http://www.pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Typha+latifolia, Plants for a future, Accessed November 12, 2014
  
• [PMAP] Production, Mineral Accumulation and Pigment Concentrations in Typha Latifolia and Scirpus Americanus, Claude E. Boyd, Ecology > Vol. 51, No. 2, Mar., 1970